Pure Land Schools A form of Buddhism that teaches enlightenment through rebirth in a "Pure Land," a celestial realm where spiritual liberation is easy. Rebirth in one of these realms is attained through devotion to a Buddha, a fully enlightened being, particularly the Buddha Amitabha or Amida. Pure Land Buddhism is more devotional than most other forms of the religion. It is one of the dominant forms of Buddhism in Japan.

Theravada Literally "the way of the elders." The predominant form of Buddhism in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka, the Theravada also claims to be the oldest and original form of the Buddha's teaching. It focuses on the central Buddhist teachings of the Four Noble Truths (essentially the fact of suffering and the cessation of suffering through enlightenment) and the Eightfold Noble Path of spiritual development. Because it emphasizes personal rather than collective enlightenment, it is sometimes pejoratively referred to as the Hinayana ("Lesser Vehicle").

Tibetan Buddhism Buddhism was brought to Tibet in the eighth century A.D. by Padmasambhava, a teacher from India. It was rapidly established there, and Tibet soon became a refuge for Buddhist teachings that were lost or destroyed elsewhere. There are four main lineages of Tibetan Buddhism: Nyingmapa, Kagyupa, Gelugpa, and Sakyapa. All recognize the spiritual leadership of the Dalai Lama, who until 1959 was also the political ruler of Tibet. Tibetan Buddhism is sometimes called Vajrayana (the "Diamond Vehicle") to distinguish it from the Mahayana ("Greater Vehicle" and Theravada ("Way of the Elders"), but Tibetan Buddhism also embraces many of the Mahayana teachings, especially the motivation to attain enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings.

Zen The largest school of Buddhism in Japan, it was imported to that nation from China (where it is known as Ch'an Buddhism) in the late fifth century A.D. Like all forms of Buddhism, Zen emphasizes attaining enlightenment through realization of the true nature of the mind. However, it emphasizes direct transmission of spiritual experience from one who is already enlightened rather than through the study of sacred texts. Zen teachings are known for their paradoxical, even quirky, character. Zen has had a tremendous influence upon art and culture in Japan and, over the past generation, in the U.S. as well.


Roman Catholicism (From the Greek katholikos, "universal.") The largest of Christian denominations, with approximately 1 billion members worldwide. Roman Catholics consider theirs to be the "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church" founded by Jesus Christ and subsequently led by St. Peter and his heirs, the Popes. The Catholic Church has a highly organized ecclesiastical structure as well as a rich and elaborate theology, centering on Christ as Redeemer and incarnation of God. The central liturgical rite is the mass, a commemoration both of Christ's Last Supper and of his sacrificial redemption on the cross. Unlike Protestants, Catholics regard the authority of the Church as being on a par with that of Scripture. Catholics also venerate Mary, the Mother of Christ, as well as a wide and varied array of saints.

Baptist The largest Protestant denomination in the U.S. The Baptist movement began in the seventeenth century in the Netherlands and England. It emphasizes personal commitment to Christ expressed through baptism by full immersion. Church government is congregational. In recent years Baptist churches have been divided between liberal and fundamentalist factions. Worldwide membership is over 40 million, 90% of it in the U.S. and Britain.

Eastern Orthodox A group of churches descended from the church of the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire. Like the Roman Catholics, the Eastern Orthodox consider theirs to be the "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church." The Catholic and Orthodox churches were in fact united until 1054, when a schism separated the two. One of the chief outstanding differences is that the Orthodox do not accept the primacy of the Pope. Orthodox worship, which centers on the Eucharist or Divine Liturgy, is more formal and ceremonial than the Catholic. Eastern Orthodoxy is headed by a synod of four Patriarchs of the ancient churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Constantinople. Organization is focused, however, on mostly national autocephalous (self-governing) churches headed by bishops. World membership is estimated at 200 million, of whom some 2 million are in North America. In the U.S., the largest body is the Orthodox Church in America.

Episcopalian The American branch of the worldwide Anglican communion. Anglicanism began in 1534 when, under the orders of King Henry VIII, the Church of England split off from the Catholic Church. Today Episcopalians are united with their Anglican kin worldwide by a liturgy embodied in one of the many versions of The Book of Common Prayer. Church government is episcopal, that is, governed by bishops. World membership of the Anglican communion is over 70 million.

Lutheranism The Protestant tradition founded by the great German Reformer Martin Luther (1483-1546). Luther's teaching emphasized Scripture as the sole authority for Christians. He also taught that salvation is given by God through faith in Jesus Christ rather than as a result of any good works the believer may perform. Lutheranism is the dominant faith in much of Germany as well as in Scandinavia. Worldwide membership is over 75 million.

Methodism A form of Protestantism that arose from the teachings of the English preacher John Wesley (1703-91). Wesley taught that salvation comes as a result of a personal commitment to Jesus Christ rather than by ritual or good works. Methodists today form a number of denominations, the largest of which is the United Methodist Church, which is governed by bishops. (Some other Methodist denominations have congregational government.) In 1992, Methodism was the third-largest Christian denomination in the U.S. (after Roman Catholics and Baptists), with some 13.3 million members.

Mormonism Officially known as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (often abbreviated as LDS), Mormonism was founded in 1830 by the American prophet Joseph Smith. Smith claimed to have discovered a buried sacred text called The Book of Mormon near Palmyra, New York. Mormons regard The Book of Mormon, as well as two other sacred texts revealed by Smith, as having equal authority to that of the Bible. Like other Christian denominations, Mormons emphasize salvation through repentance and faith in Jesus Christ. But Mormons also have teachings and practices that distinguish them from most Christians. For example, believers may perform vicarious baptism for the dead, and marriages may be contracted "for eternity," that is, they are believed to be binding even after death. Polygamy was practiced in the nineteenth century but was repudiated in 1890. The main Mormon denomination is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah. Current membership is around 10 million, half in the U.S.

Pentecostalism A Protestant Christian movement that originated in the U.S. in the early twentieth century. It emphasizes "the gifts of the Spirit," notably the ability to "speak in tongues" — to talk in unknown languages. Pentecostal faiths include such denominations as the Church of God, the Assemblies of God, the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel, and the United Pentecostal Church International. Pentecostal churches have a strong "end-times" emphasis, believing we are living in the last days before the Second Coming of Christ. World membership is estimated at 132 million, with a strong and growing presence in Latin America. U.S. membership is estimated at around 6.7 million.

Presbyterianism One of the main bodies of the Reformed tradition of Protestantism. The formative figure was the sixteenth-century French Reformer John Calvin, who emphasized the sovereignty of God and the salvation of a predestined elect. Presbyterians are governed by a system of ruling bodies called presbyteries or synods. U.S. membership in 1991 was 2.9 million.

Quaker Quakers, officially known as the Religious Society of Friends, originated in seventeenth-century England with the teachings of George Fox, who emphasized the "inner light" within each individual that takes precedence over creeds and doctrines. The name "Quaker" is thought to come from the fact that early participants trembled in religious ecstasy. Over the centuries Quakers have come to be known as strong advocates of humanitarianism, pacifism, and religious tolerance. Government of each local "meeting" is congregational. Many Friends meetings have no paid clergy. U.S. membership in 1999 was 92,000; world membership is 282,000.

United Church of Christ U.S. denomination formed by a merger of the Congregational Churches with the Evangelical and Reformed Churches in 1957. Today the United Church of Christ is one of the most liberal Protestant denominations. Individual conscience, an aversion to formal creeds, and congregational government are the chief hallmarks. Current U.S. membership is 1.4 million.

Unitarian Unitarians differ from most Christians in denying the full divinity of Jesus Christ. Unitarians have existed throughout the course of Christian history, but the American version started in Boston in 1774. In 1961 the Unitarians merged with the Universalists, a New England denomination, to form the Unitarian Universalist Association. Unitarians today are among the most liberal of faiths, emphasizing truth through individual experience rather than through creeds or dogmas. Members are not required to subscribe to any beliefs; many do not identify themselves as Christian or believe in a personal God. Church government is congregational. U.S. membership is around 250,000.


Hinduism The dominant religion of India, Hinduism has a broad variety of forms, ranging from simple folk practices to abstruse metaphysical systems. Hindus regard the sacred texts known as the Vedas (composed around 1500 B.C.) as central to their tradition. While acknowledging many Gods, Hindus believe in one supreme God who creates and sustains the universe. There are numerous Hindu deities that serve as manifestations of this supreme God, but the three most important are Brahma, the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and Shiva, the Destroyer and lord of all yogis. Ritual and devotional practices are widespread, as are meditative practices. The supreme goal of Hindu aspiration is moksha, or liberation from the cycle of birth and death, which, it is said, all beings will attain in one lifetime or another. About 80 % of India’s one billion people are Hindus, while another 30 million Hindus are scattered across the globe.

Traditions

Shaivism One of the three primary traditions of Hinduism, Shaivism focuses on the god Shiva, the lord of transformative power in the universe. Shaivism is sometimes believed to be the oldest living religion in the world, going back at least to the third millennium B.C. The tradition is nondualistic, emphasizing the unity of the Absolute with the manifest world. The primary image of creation is the dance of Shiva, symbolizing the divine play of the universe. The principal authoritative texts are the Vedas and the Agamas.

Shaktism Shaktism focuses on worship of Shakti, the Divine Mother embodying the power of universal manifestation, sometimes known under her names Devi or Kali. Worshippers of Shakti, while acknowledging her identity with the transcendent principle known as Shiva, concentrate their devotion upon her manifest form as the embodied world. Shaktism is primarily practiced in Bengal and Assam. This tradition is often associated with Hindu Tantrism.

Vaishnavism Vaishnavism focuses on Vishnu, the Supreme Lord, and his incarnations Krishna and Rama. Vaishnavism is divided into various sampradayas (sects), each of which has been founded by a particular acharaya (guru). Their respective belief systems are founded upon the specific teachings of the acharaya. The primary texts are the Vedas and the Upanishads, the Bhagavad-Gita or “Song of the Lord,” and the Brahma-Sutra. Many branches of Vaishnavism emphasize bhakti or devotion to the Lord in one of his many guises. Vaishnavism is the most widely practiced form of Hinduism.

Sacred Texts

The Vedas Meaning “knowledge” in Sanskrit, the Vedas are the oldest and most authoritative texts of Hinduism. Composed around 1500 B.C.E., they are among the world’s oldest surviving. The Vedas consist of four parts. The Rig Veda contains verses of praise to the gods; the Yajur Veda discusses the requirements of ritual offerings; the Sama Veda, verses and chants for ritual offerings, and Atharva Veda, magical verses.

The Upanishads Among the principal texts of the Hindu tradition, the Upanishads are metaphysical treatises that are concerned with the origin and destiny of humanity and the universe. These texts (the oldest of which date to the sixth century B.C.E.) teach that the gods of the Hindu pantheon are but manifestations of the unitive power of the cosmos and of an all-comprehensive Reality, Brahman. They also introduce the concepts of karma and reincarnation and of the Atman or transcendent Self.

The Bhagavad-Gita A section of the immense epic known as the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad-Gita (“The Song of the Lord”) is perhaps the best-known of Hindu texts. Believed to be about 2000 years old, it is set on the field of the climactic battle of the Mahabharata. It consists of a dialogue between the hero Arjuna and his charioteer, the divine Krishna. Krishna reveals the nature and purpose of human existence to Arjuna, and urges him on to fulfill his dharma, or divine destiny.

The Puranas The name purana means “ancient,” and these eighteen texts are a compendium of legends and histories dating from the fourth century B.C.E. to 1000 C.E. They address the creation of the universe, its destruction and renovation, the genealogy of gods and patriarchs, and the reigns of ancient rulers. The tales and stories of the Puranas form an integral part of the fabric of Hindu culture.


Orthodox Judaism The branch of Judaism that emphasizes strict adherence to halakhah, the body of laws and practices that are based on the Torah, or the Law of Moses. This includes not only the Law as found in the first five books of the Bible but the complex commentaries and elaborations upon it in the Midrash, Talmud, and other authoritative texts. Although there have always been Jews who strictly follow halakhah, modern Orthodox Judaism as a distinct movement arose principally in response to secularizing influences on Judaism in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Conservative Judaism A branch of Judaism that arose in the late nineteenth century as a middle course between Reform and Orthodox forms of the faith. Conservative Jews hold that while their faith must adapt to the needs of the times, the traditional forms of Judaism are valid and should be changed only with great reluctance. They generally observe the Sabbath, the high holy days, and festivals in traditional ways. But they have adapted some innovations introduced by Reform Judaism.

Reform Judaism The most liberal form of Judaism, which grew out of the Enlightenment in the eighteenth century. Reform Jews regard the moral aspects of the Jewish Law as binding, but do not feel obliged to follow customs that, in their view, are not adapted to the needs of modern times. English rather than Hebrew is generally used in services.

Hasidism A popular religious movement that began in Eastern Europe in the eighteenth century, founded by the mystic known as Israel Eliezer Baal Shem Tov. Hasidism emphasizes optimism and joy expressed in song and dance as well as prayer. The leadership of a tzaddik ("righteous one"), a charismatic holy man, is of central importance. The Hasidic communities have a strong sense of communal identity, reinforced by the beards and black, and broad-brimmed hats worn by men.

Kabbalah The mystical or esoteric tradition of Judaism. The Kabbalah focuses on the attainment of higher states of consciousness through meditation or contemplation of sacred texts. The best-known Kabbalistic diagram is known as the Tree of Life, which is regarded as a map of spiritual realms. Today the Kabbalah is practiced both by Jews and non-Jews.

Jewish Renewal A contemporary American Jewish movement that seeks to draw on the best of traditional teachings such as Kabbalah and Hasidism and to apply them to a modern context. But Jewish Renewal also espouses equality for women, integration of gays and lesbians, ecological responsibility, and mutual respect for other spiritual paths. Chant, meditation, and sacred dance are used in worship.

The Land of Israel. Because the Bible portrays God as bestowing the territory roughly equivalent to modern-day Israel as a heritage to the Jewish people, eretz Yisrael ("the land of Israel") has always been central to Jewish hope and aspiration. The Jews were driven from this territory by the Romans in the first century C.E. It was only in the late nineteenth century that large numbers of Jews began to resettle there. After World War II, with its wholesale slaughter of Jews by the Nazis, the international community supported the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine, which was established in 1948. The political movement aimed at creating a Jewish state in the traditional homeland is known as Zionism.


Sunni Muslim One of the two major branches of Islam, constituting about 85% of the world's 950 million Muslims. Sunnis believe that the Prophet Muhammad died without designating a successor. The community of the faithful then chose a successor, known as the Caliph, as the political leader of the community. In this branch, political and religious authority rest in the community, who follow the moral example (sunna) of the Prophet. Leadership is vested in the scholars and leaders collectively known as the ulama.

Shiite Muslim This branch of Islam, constituting some 15% of Muslims, holds that the Prophet Muhammad designated his cousin Ali and his descendants as his successors. They thus differ from the majority Sunni branch, which holds that the Prophet did not name a successor. Shiites are close in doctrine to Sunni Muslims, but Shiites, because of their long-time minority status, tend to differentiate sacred from secular authority more than Sunnis do. They also regard Ali's successors, the Imams, to have been infallible transmitters of spiritual authority. Since the line of Imams ceased in 941 A.D., religious authority has been vested in jurists known as mujtahid. Shiites constitute a majority of Muslims in Iran and parts of Iraq.

Sufism is the mystical tradition of Islam. One of its principal motifs is an intense and ecstatic love of God. Among the Sufis have been some of the greatest poets of Islam, including Omar Khayyam, Rumi, and Hafiz. Like many other mystical traditions, Sufism today is practiced both by Muslims and non-Muslims.


Astrology A system of relating the movements of the stars and planets to events on earth. Astrology is extremely ancient, dating back to at least 2000 B.C., and has been practiced the world over: the Chinese, Tibetan, and Indian systems differ considerably from that of the West. Astrologers hold that the positions of the planets at the moment of an individual’s birth are an important key to his or her character and destiny.

Confucianism A Chinese religious and philsophical system. Confucius, who lived in the sixth century B.C., was its founder. Confucian teachings stress self-cultivation and the development of virtue. Considerable attention is given to the correct ordering of society and the proper relationship of human beings within it. Confucians regard the Five Classics as authoritative texts. The most famous of these in the West is the divinatory book called the I Ching.

Creation Myths and Cosmologies Virtually all faiths incorporate some teaching about the origins of the universe. These traditions vary widely. Often a creator god is invoked, but in other instances the world is seen as arising from an act of procreation by gods or primordial forces. Some religions, such as Hinduism and Buddhism, regard creation as a cyclical process: our universe is only one in a countless stream of worlds that have existed over the eons.

Divination Foretelling or obtaining guidance for the future using some interpretation of a random act: flipping a coin is the most obvious example. Other systems are considerably more elaborate. The Tarot, a deck of 78 cards probably invented in fifteenth-century Italy, is widely favored today, as is the I Ching, an ancient Chinese oracle interpreting the throw of coins or yarrow stalks. The Tibetan Mo oracle casts fortunes by interpreting the throw of dice. But nearly everything imaginable has been used for divination at one point or another, including the flight patterns of birds and lines chosen at random from a sacred text.

Gnosticism A Christian religious system holding that gnosis, or spiritual illumination, is the key to salvation. Gnosticism flourished in the Roman Empire in the first through the fourth centuries A.D. One of its chief teachings is that the physical world is the creation of a second-rate deity known as the Demiurge (from a Greek word meaning "craftsman") and that the true, benevolent God is hidden from ordinary humans. Gnosis is the key to reaching this hidden God. The early Gnostic sects were denounced as heretical by the mainstream Church and died out in the early centuries of the Common Era, but Gnostic impulses have reappeared throughout history: the medieval Bogomils and Cathars are two examples. The twentieth century has also seen a Gnostic revival; today some small churches and sects identify themselves as Gnostic.

Healing Arts Western medicine is only one of innumerable systems of healing developed throughout the ages. Some of these, like shamanism, seek to help the sick through intervention with the spirits or gods. Others are simply different approaches to the technology of healing. Chinese acupuncture, for example, seeks to restore health by regulating the flow of life energy, known as chi. Diet, herbs, and stimulation with thin needles are used for this purpose. Qi Gong or chi kung is another means of regulating internal energy; physical movement is the chief method used.

Hinduism The dominant religion of India, Hinduism has a broad variety of forms, ranging from simple folk practices to abstruse metaphysical systems. Hindus regard the sacred texts known as the Vedas (composed around 1500 B.C.) as central to their tradition. While acknowledging many Gods, Hindus believe in one supreme God who creates and sustains the universe. There are numerous Hindu deities that serve as manifestations of this supreme God, but the three most important are Brahma, the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and Shiva, the Destroyer and lord of all yogis. Ritual and devotional practices are widespread, as are meditative practices. The supreme goal of Hindu aspiration is moksha, or liberation from the cycle of birth and death, which, it is said, all beings will attain in one lifetime or another. About 80 % of India’s one billion people are Hindus, while another 30 million Hindus are scattered across the globe.

Jainism A religion of India, probably founded by Vardhamana Mahavira in the sixth century B.C. Jains teach that all forms of life possess a soul substance called jiva. As a result Jain teachings strongly emphasize nonviolence to all living things. Jainism has always placed a strong focus on asceticism and on nonattachment to the material body. Today there are some 4 million Jains, nearly all of whom live in India.

Martial Arts Throughout history people have tried to increase their capacity for attack and defense by building strength and agility. Martial arts are one means of doing this. In most forms, the individual’s reflexes are trained to a point of extremely high responsiveness. Martial arts like karate, jujitsu, and Aikido chiefly use the body itself as a weapon, but other forms include swords, sticks, and other weapons. Most martial arts contain a strong ethical component to prevent practitioners from abusing their powers.

Mysticism A tendency present in all religions to seek direct experience of the divine. Prayer, meditation, and other practices are used to attain this end.

Native Religions: Africa Africa’s 700 million people are divided into 3,000 tribes, with almost as many languages and dialects. Traditional African religion is equally diverse. But most include the concept of a high god or creator god as well as many other deities and spirits that can help or hurt human beings. Rituals are practiced to appease gods or ancestral spirits. Rites also mark incidents in the yearly cycle and such human transitions as birth, marriage, and death. Healing and divination are also widely practiced in a religious context.

Native Religions: Asia All the major world religions have their origins on the Asian continent. So in a sense nearly everyone is a practitioner of a native Asian religion. In addition to these world faiths, however, some tribes in Central and Southeast Asia practice indigenous shamanistic religions. Shinto is a native Japanese religion that still remains very much alive despite a widespread Buddhist presence in Japan. Like many other indigenous faiths, it centers around belief in spirits, which can help or hurt humans. Lifecycle and seasonal rites are also practiced.

Native Religions: Australia, New Zealand, and Polynesia Like many indigenous peoples around the world, the Native tribes of Oceania do not draw a sharp distinction between the religious and the secular realms. Humans are part of a larger whole, which include supernatural beings as well as animals and plants. Ritual practices are used to help maintain the cosmic order as well as to assure health, prosperity, and an adequate food supply.

Native Religions: Europe The ancient religions of Europe were more or less completely subsumed by Christianity in the first millennium C.E. They have chiefly survived in folk beliefs and practices. With the weakening of Christianity in the twentieth century, however, Pagan traditions have seen a revival in most European nations. Gods from ancient pantheons are worshipped, and there is an attempt to return to rites and practices of old. Many Pagan revivals are inspired by a nationalistic impulse.

Native Religions: Latin America Although Latin America is predominantly Roman Catholic, Native religions continue to be practiced by a number of tribes, chiefly isolated groups such as those in the Amazon rain forest. Religions are diverse, but focus on maintaining close and intimate contact with the spirits of the plants and animals upon whom these cultures depend. Some Latin American religions, such as Voudun (Voodoo) and Santería, are not native to the region but were imported from Africa by blacks who continued to practice their original faiths. Many of these have incorporated elements of Roman Catholicism.

Native Religions: North America American Indian religions are complex and diverse, as each of the hundreds of tribes has its own distinct system of belief and practice. Generally, however, Native Americans venerate a wide range of spirits, which are often regarded as powers of nature. A cardinal tenet of American Indian religion is that respect is owed not only to divine forces and other humans but to plants, animals, and the whole natural realm as well. Many American Indian traditions hold that an individual needs to seek out his or her own vision, which will indicate how that person can best serve the community.

Paganism The name Pagan (from a Latin word meaning "rustic") was applied by Christians in ancient times to those who worshipped the Greek and Roman gods. Today it has come to mean any religion that worships a number of gods (a teaching known as polytheism). The modern West has seen an attempt to revive ancient Pagan religions. Modern Paganism (or Neopaganism, as it is sometimes called) is a colorful and individualistic faith, relying heavily on occult teachings and practices. Many modern Pagans venerate the Goddess, a female manifestation of divinity that is traced to Neolithic times. Wicca or Witchcraft is a form of Neopaganism. Its practitioners say that this is a continuation of the "Old Religion" that prevailed in Europe before Christianity. They do not worship Satan or the Devil of the Christian tradition.

Shamanism A religious phenomenon chiefly found in indigenous cultures. Practitioners, known as shamans, enter altered states of consciousness. There they are believed to have contact with spirits, who give them advice about such matters as healing, hunting, and human relations. Shamanism is found worldwide, in locations as far-flung as North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. But there is no organized worldwide shamanic religion. Practices and teachings vary greatly from tribe to tribe. The term shamanism is the creation of anthropologists. Some modern teachers carry out shamanic practices in a Western context.

Sikhism A religion founded in the Punjab region of north India by Guru Nanak (1469-1539 A.D.). Guru Nanak preached the need for devotional love to a formless God. Sikhs revere a lineage of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Gurus and possess a strong sense of identity symbolized by the beards and turbans worn by Sikh men. There are about 16 million Sikhs worldwide, most of them Punjabis.

Reincarnation The belief that the human soul takes another life on earth after death. Reincarnation is an integral part of the beliefs of Asian religions like Hinduism and Buddhism. But it is also found in the West. Greek philosophers such as Plato and Pythagoras taught this doctrine, and it has been espoused in esoteric forms of Judaism and Christianity as well. Belief in reincarnation has increased greatly in the U.S. over the last generation, chiefly as a result of popularized Eastern religions.

Taoism A religious and philosophical system of China. Lao Tsu, who lived in the fifth century B.C., is regarded as its founder. Its primary text is the Tao Te Ching. Living in accord with the Tao, the supreme force underlying the universe, is the principal goal of the teaching. Many Taoists engage in various forms of physical, dietary, and meditative practice as a means of bringing themselves in harmony with the universe. Feng shui, an increasingly popular means of harmonizing architecture and landscaping, is based on Taoist principles.

Zoroastrianism An ancient Persian religion founded by Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, who lived in eastern Iran c. 1000 B.C. Zoroastrianism is strongly dualistic, regarding the universe as an interplay of the forces of Good and Evil. Zoroastrianism has been extremely influential on the history of world religion: many scholars regard it as the origin of teachings of a Last Judgment and the Devil as seen in the monotheistic faiths of the West. Today there are about 150,000 Zoroastrians, most of them in western India.


African-American Spirituality Evangelical Protestant Christianity remains the single most important religious movement among black Americans. But other faiths have grown increasingly prominent. Some blacks have converted to Islam, while others have been drawn to traditions such as Voudun (Voodoo) or Santería versions of west African faiths that were transplanted to the New World in the days of slavery. Kwanzaa is a family-centered African-American holiday created in California in 1966. Celebrated from Dec. 26 to Jan. 1 each year, it emphasizes seven principles: unity, self-determination, collective work and responsibility, cooperative economics, purpose, creativity, and faith, each celebrated on one day of the festival.

Angels and Miracles The word angel comes from a Greek word meaning "messenger." An angel is usually said to be a supernatural being who has a specific function to fulfill in the cosmic order. Sometimes this function involves contact with humans. Throughout history, people have had experiences of angels who, they have felt, have given instruction, reassurance, or healing. Miracles are events that cannot be explained by rational means. Reports of miraculous occurrences have occurred in all ages. Many people report such experiences today.

Astrology A system of relating the movements of the stars and planets to events on earth. Astrology is extremely ancient, dating back to at least 2000 B.C., and has been practiced the world over: the Chinese, Tibetan, and Indian systems differ considerably from that of the West. Astrologers hold that the positions of the planets at the moment of an individual’s birth are an important key to his or her character and destiny.

Baha’i A religion founded by a Persian spiritual teacher named Baha’ullah in the 1860s. The chief feature of Baha’I is the idea of continuous revelation. Baha’is believe that there have been many true prophets throughout the course of history, including Abraham, Moses, the Buddha, Jesus, and Muhammad. Baha’ullah is regarded as the latest, but not the last. Baha’is believe that in the present age the unity of all peoples and religions will come to be realized. There are about five million Baha’is worldwide.

Bodywork Massage and other forms of physical manipulation have always been used to promote health and relaxation. In the twentieth century, there has been an explosion of new techniques and practices in this area. They are generally grouped under the label of bodywork. Bodyworkers often believe that emotional and psychological tension is accompanied by physical tension, and that releasing one will help release the other. Some forms of bodywork involve physical manipulation by a practitioner, such as Rolfing, shiatsu, and Esalen massage. Others, like Feldenkrais and the Alexander Technique, rely more on movement by the person undergoing treatment.

A Course in Miracles A book channeled to a New York psychologist named Helen Schucman and published in 1975. Claiming to be the transmission of Jesus Christ, it sets out a programmed course in forgiveness and healing in a Text, Workbook, and Manual for Teachers. The central tenet is that forgiveness can undo the false perception that leads human beings to believe in sickness, suffering, and death. The Course is probably the single most influential of New Age texts, and has sold millions of copies since its publication.

Divination Foretelling or obtaining guidance for the future using some interpretation of a random act: flipping a coin is the most obvious example. Other systems are considerably more elaborate. The Tarot, a deck of 78 cards probably invented in fifteenth-century Italy, is widely favored today, as is the I Ching, an ancient Chinese oracle interpreting the throw of coins or yarrow stalks. The Tibetan Mo oracle casts fortunes by interpreting the throw of dice. But nearly everything imaginable has been used for divination at one point or another, including the flight patterns of birds and lines chosen at random from a sacred text.

Dreams Both modern psychology and ancient teachings hold that dreams can be extremely important to a person’s life. In former times dreams were regarded as messages from the divine. Today, under the influence of psychologists like Freud and Jung, they are usually viewed as conveying messages from the deeper reaches of a person’s own mind.

Earth Wisdom & Ecology Over the past thirty-five years, environmental concerns have led to a greater concern with the Earth and the place of humans in it. Many people have concluded that it is necessary to make caring for the Earth an integral part of their spiritual path. This idea has been reinforced by the Gaia hypothesis, a scientific theory that suggests that the Earth itself is a living, growing being. Because indigenous traditions often contain elements of concern and care for nature, modern exponents of Earth wisdom have often looked to these teachings for guidance and inspiration.

Gnosticism A Christian religious system holding that gnosis, or spiritual illumination, is the key to salvation. Gnosticism flourished in the Roman Empire in the first through the fourth centuries A.D. One of its chief teachings is that the physical world is the creation of a second-rate deity known as the Demiurge (from a Greek word meaning "craftsman") and that the true, benevolent God is hidden from ordinary humans. Gnosis is the key to reaching this hidden God. The early Gnostic sects were denounced as heretical by the mainstream Church and died out in the early centuries of the Christian era, but Gnostic impulses have reappeared throughout history: the medieval sects known as the Bogomils and Cathars are two examples. The present age has also seen a Gnostic revival: today some small churches and sects identify themselves as Gnostic.

Goddess Religion A form of Neopaganism that worships the deity in female form. Often the Goddess is identified with the Earth. Many people who venerate the Goddess claim that this was the form of divinity worshipped in Europe in Neolithic times. (Scholars do not entirely agree, stressing that there are many unknown facts about prehistoric religion.) At any rate, more and more people today are claiming that it is as legitimate to worship a female Goddess as it is to worship a masculine God. Goddess worship has grown tremendously over the past generation. Many devotees of the Goddess identify themselves as witches, Wiccans, or Neopagans. Other traditions, such as Hinduism, also include worship of Goddesses.

Healing Arts Western medicine is only one of innumerable systems of healing developed throughout the ages. Some of these, like shamanism, seek to help the sick through intervention with the spirits or gods. Others are simply different approaches to the technology of healing. Chinese acupuncture, for example, seeks to restore health by regulating the flow of life energy, known as chi (or qi). Diet, herbs, and stimulation with thin needles are used for this purpose. Qi Gong (or chi kung) is another means of regulating internal energy; physical movement is the chief method used. Reiki, a method imported to the U.S. from Japan, seeks to impart healing life energy by laying on of hands.

Holistic Health and Healing The term holism is defined as "a philosophic concept in which an entity is seen as more than the sum of its parts." Whereas conventional medicine focuses on standard protocols, holistic health is dependent upon a multi-dimensional view of the individual’s physical, emotional, social, environmental, and spiritual situation. Holistic health is usually grouped with systems of health and healing from around the world such as as herbalism, traditional Chinese medicine, Ayurvedic medicine (from India), and others offer us ways to work with our bodies to foster good health.

Humanism Humanism, also known as secular humanism, is not strictly speaking a religion at all. It is a means of creating an ethical and meaningful existence without reference to the supernatural. The Humanist Manifesto, promoted by the American Humanist Association, says, "As nontheists, we begin with humans, not God, nature, not deity." Humanists tend to be strong supporters of democracy, religious freedom and autonomy, global consciousness, and strong barriers between church and state.

Interfaith A term that refers to anything involving people of more than one religion. A marriage between a Jew and a Christian is considered an interfaith marriage. But even individuals are increasingly discovering that they have affinities for more than one path or teaching. As connections grow between different faiths, there has been an increasing need for religious services that honor more than one tradition. Interfaith ministers are specifically trained in more than one tradition so that they will be better able to serve as bridges among these.

Kabbalah The mystical or esoteric tradition of Judaism. The Kabbalah focuses on the attainment of higher states of consciousness through meditation or through contemplation of sacred knowledge. The best-known Kabbalistic diagram is known as the Tree of Life, which is regarded as a map of spiritual realms. Today the Kabbalah is practiced both by Jews and non-Jews. Kabbalistic ideas and techniques are sometimes used by practitioners of magic and occultism.

Lodges and Societies Societies with a spiritual focus are found throughout the world. They often include some form of hidden or esoteric knowledge which is given only to those who have been initiated. In the West, the most famous of these societies are the Freemasons and the Rosicrucians. But there are many others as well, often unknown to the general public. Certain lodges and societies may be chiefly intended to instill a spirit of camaraderie among their members. Many fraternal lodges, including college fraternities, fall into this category.

Magic and Occultism Types of spiritual practice that use ritual to realize goals in the physical world. Magic in this sense is sometimes spelled magick to distinguish it from the sleight-of-hand magic that is a form of entertainment. Serious ritual magicians claim that their practices are effective and can have real, discernible results. For many, magic is a full spiritual path that can lead to self-realization. They stress that these are ways of making contact with the divine and helping it to manifest in the world of concrete reality.

Meditation Meditation is used primarily to reduce mental stress and invoke physical relaxation. The three prominent approaches to meditation include: Transcendental Meditation, mindfulness meditation and breath meditation. Transcendental meditation includes repetition of a mantra and is the most common form used in the Western world. Mindfulness meditation has roots in the Buddhist tradition of vipassana, which focuses on simple awareness of thoughts and feelings as they arise. Breath meditation, which was taught by the Buddha, uses breath as an object of contemplation.

Men’s Empowerment The men’s movement began in the early 1980s through the inspiration of the poet Robert Bly, who believed that men need to get in touch with their own deeper natures. Bly’s men’s movement is not specifically Christian in orientation, but in the 1990s, the most important men’s group has been Christian. Known as the Promise Keepers, it is famous for its meetings in sports stadiums with a goal of encouraging men in a path of Christian discipleship.

Metaphysics A branch of philosophy that is concerned with the fundamental nature of reality. In a spiritual context, “metaphysics” often refers to teachings about invisible spiritual planes. Most traditions say that there are a number of these, though they do not always agree about their exact nature or about how many there are.

Modern Teachers and Masters Largely as a result of interest in Eastern teachings, many Western seekers have come to follow spiritual teachers and masters, sometimes known as gurus. Certain traditions, such as Hinduism, regard some of these masters as embodiments of the divine. Others are seen as having access to superhuman powers and as being able to grant unusual blessings to their devotees. Still others are simply considered to be at a higher level of development than most people. As a result, their ideas and practices are said to be useful for spiritual growth.

Mysticism A tendency present in all religions to seek direct experience of the divine. Prayer, meditation, and other practices are used to attain this end.

Neopaganism, Wicca, and Witchcraft The name Pagan (from a Latin word meaning "rustic") was applied by Christians in ancient times to those who worshipped the Greek and Roman gods. Today it has come to mean any religion that worships a number of gods (a teaching known as polytheism). The modern West has seen an attempt to revive ancient Pagan religions. Modern Paganism (or Neopaganism, as it is sometimes called) is a colorful and individualistic faith, relying heavily on occult teachings and practices. Many modern Pagans venerate the Goddess, a female manifestation of divinity that is traced to Neolithic times. Wicca or Witchcraft is a form of Neopaganism. Its practitioners say that it is a continuation of the "Old Religion" that prevailed in Europe before Christianity. They do not worship Satan or the Devil of the Christian tradition.

New Age A name that has come to apply to a wide variety of spiritual teachings. They generally say that the human race is on the verge of a leap in consciousness that will significantly alter our view of reality. New Age practitioners include channelers, who are people who claim to transmit teachings from entities in the unseen realms. Psychics are also popular: people who claim to use extrasensory powers to tell the future or diagnose someone’s psychological or physical condition. There are many such practitioners now, but there is no real means of validating their accuracy. If you believe this kind of guidance would be helpful to you, try to find someone who has a solid reputation, with good references from people you know personally.

Peace and the Path of Nonviolence Practically all religions teach peace and nonviolence as a central aspect of their ethics. In the twentieth century, under the influence of leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr., nonviolent resistance to oppression has become a powerful means of social change. Pacifism is a belief that war is not justified under any circumstances. Quakerism and Buddhism are two religious traditions with a strong pacifist heritage.

Rastafarianism A black religious movement that originated in the twentieth century. Rastafarians venerate Haile Selassie or Ras Tafari, Emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974, as a divine being. Rastafarianism is rooted in a repudiation of "Babylon," the materialistic white civilization, and in the espousal of return to Africa, understood either literally or as a renewal of a more natural state of being. Rastas are known for their use of ganja, or marijuana, as an aid to religious experience and for their distinctive cultural features. The best-known of these are reggae music and the dreadlocks hairstyle.

Reincarnation The belief that the human soul takes another life on earth after death. Reincarnation is an integral part of the beliefs of Asian religions like Hinduism and Buddhism. But it is also found in the West. Greek philosophers such as Plato and Pythagoras taught this doctrine, and it has been espoused in esoteric forms of Judaism and Christianity as well. Belief in reincarnation has increased greatly in the U.S. over the last generation, chiefly through the influence of Eastern religions.

Sacred Music and Sound People have known for thousands of years that music and sound can be used to change one’s state of consciousness. They have also employed these means to heighten an awareness of the divine. Gregorian chant and hymns are two well-known versions of this approach in the Christian tradition. But there are many other examples as well. Many shamans use drumming as a means of altering consciousness so that one can journey into the world of the spirits. Traditions such as Hinduism and Buddhism employ sacred syllables known as mantras to induce meditative states. They may be chanted aloud or repeated silently.

Self-Improvement and Personal Growth To improve oneself as a person is a universal goal among human beings at large. Many modern self-improvement practices have greater psychological health and integration as an aim. Some, though not all, include spiritual development as part of their approach.

Shamanism A religious phenomenon chiefly found in indigenous cultures. Practitioners, known as shamans, enter altered states of consciousness. There they are believed to have contact with spirits, who give them advice about such matters as healing, hunting, and human relations. Shamanism is found worldwide, in locations as far-flung as the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. But there is no organized worldwide shamanic religion. Practices and teachings vary greatly from tribe to tribe. The term shamanism is the creation of anthropologists. Some modern teachers have adapted shamanic practices to a Western context.

Stress Reduction Any means of reducing physical or emotional tension. Many forms involve some kind of bodywork or massage. Others involve mental relaxation, using such techniques as meditation or visualization.

Theosophy Usually applied to the ideas of H.P. Blavatsky (1831-92), a Russian spiritual teacher who claimed to have made contact with hidden masters during her journeys to India and the Middle East. Theosophy incorporates many ideas from Eastern traditions such as Hinduism and Buddhism. It has been extremely important in introducing ideas such as reincarnation and the existence of unseen spiritual planes to the West. The main organizations are the Theosophical Society and the United Lodge of Theosophists.

Twelve-Step Systems and Recovery The Recovery movement began with Alcoholics Anonymous in 1935 and has since branched out to help other types of substance abusers. These are known as Twelve-Step programs because they involve twelve steps for overcoming alcoholism or drug addiction. Essentially they call upon an individual with an alcohol or drug problem to admit that he or she is powerless over this substance and to call upon the help of a Higher Power (however that person understands it) for aid. Making amends for one’s past mistakes is also regarded as essential. Alcoholics Anonymous now claims some 2 million members worldwide.

Women’s Spirituality The social and political emancipation of women over the last century has created a need for religious forms that take women’s needs more into account. Feminist theologians in religions such as Christianity and Judaism have argued for female ordination and full equality in worship and authority. Other forms of feminist spirituality take place outside the traditional denominations, for example, in Wicca, Neopaganism, and Goddess religion. One main thrust of these movements is that it is legitimate and meaningful to conceive of the divine in a feminine form.